selected references and publications
Below are links to some key publications related to Positive Community Norms and the Science of Positive Experiences that highlight the research and implementation that The Montana Institute has been involved with over the past three decades. We are honored to have worked with an incredible roster of academics, researchers, and prevention leaders who have made this work possible.
For a complete list of peer-reviewed publications authored or co-authored by Dr. Jeff Linkenbach, please click here.
Selected references:
pOSITIVE COMMUNITY NORMS
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Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal, 2020
This study evaluated the Positive Community Norms (PCN) approach in 11 Minnesota school districts over five years to correct misperceptions about peer alcohol use and reduce monthly alcohol consumption among high school students. Annual assessments showed that 8th- and 10th-grade students in PCN communities were more likely to report never using alcohol compared to a national comparison group. These results demonstrate that the PCN approach effectively corrects misperceptions and reduces teen alcohol use at the community level.
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Minnesota Department of Human Services, Alcohol and Drug Abuse Division, 2017
Over the past decade, 25 Minnesota school districts implemented the Positive Community Norms framework, funded by federal grants, to reduce youth alcohol use. The initiative proved successful, with significant decreases in alcohol use among students. In the first cohort (2004-2010), 9th-grade 30-day alcohol use dropped from 35.5% to 22%, and further to 14% by 2013. The second cohort (2010-2016) saw a decrease from 25.9% to 17.2%. These results demonstrate the framework's effectiveness in reducing youth alcohol consumption.
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Prevention Science, 2014
Effective community prevention of substance abuse integrates various risk and protective factors. This study examined if youth perceptions of peer substance use norms are a significant risk factor in Wyoming's statewide prevention efforts. Analyzing data from over 8,000 students, the findings revealed that these misperceptions are a significant risk factor, comparable to others. Measuring these misperceptions is crucial for strategic community prevention efforts.
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Substance Use & Misuse, 2023
This study examined the relationship between perceived social norms and e-cigarette use among high school students in 10 Minnesota communities (N > 3,000). Results showed that students who believed e-cigarette use was common or socially approved among peers were more likely to report using e-cigarettes themselves. The findings highlight a connection between perceived peer norms and adolescent vaping behavior.
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Addictive Behaviors, 2010
This study evaluated a social norms media marketing campaign in Montana targeting 21-to-34-year-olds to reduce drinking and driving. Using a quasi-experimental design, regions were assigned to campaign, buffer, and control groups. Over 18 months, phone surveys showed the campaign reduced misperceptions, increased designated driver use, and decreased drinking and driving in intervention areas. The findings highlight the effectiveness of social norms marketing in changing public health behaviors.
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Journal of American College Health, 2010
The field of sexual assault prevention is shifting attention to educational interventions that address the role of men in ending violence against women. Data from this study suggest that men underestimate the importance that most men and women place on consent and willingness of most men to intervene against sexual violence.
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This brief, self-published summary includes some key references related to the Positive Community Norms Framework.
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This guide provides information about creating a context for increasing safe, stable, nurturing relationships and environments for children and families by promoting positive community norms. The key aim is to provide prevention leaders one way of learning about the power of positive community norms, the importance of understanding the difference between actual and perceived norms, and the ways they can grow positive norms in their communities.
Selected references:
THE SCIENCE OF POSITIVE EXPERIENCES
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Positive Childhood Experiences (PCEs) are measured in a variety of ways. This reference document from Montana Institute managing director, Carla Ritz, provides information about seven different metrics currently being used in PCE research and available data sources for each measure.
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Jama Pediatrics, 2019
This study investigates how positive childhood experiences (PCEs) affect adult mental and relational health, especially amid adverse childhood experiences (ACEs). Data from the 2015 Wisconsin Behavioral Risk Factor Survey show that adults with more PCEs had significantly lower odds of depression and poor mental health (D/PMH) and higher odds of strong social and emotional support (ARSES), regardless of ACE exposure. Promoting PCEs may reduce the negative impacts of ACEs, highlighting the importance of nurturing positive childhood environments to improve adult well-being.
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This report presents evidence for HOPE (Health Outcomes of Positive Experiences) based on newly released, compelling data that reinforce the need to promote positive experiences for children and families in order to foster healthy childhood development despite the adversity common in so many families. This report contributes to a growing body of work that encourages us to better understand and support optimal child health and development.
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Journal of Community Health, 2022
Positive experiences in childhood—like feeling safe, supported, and connected—can have lasting impacts on health and well-being in adulthood. This study looked at how those early positive experiences relate to adult smoking and drinking habits, using data from nearly 6,500 adults in Montana. Researchers found that adults who reported more positive experiences in childhood were less likely to smoke and less likely to drink heavily. Interestingly, while these individuals were slightly more likely to have had a drink in the past month, they drank less overall, with fewer binge episodes and lower peak drinking amounts. The findings indicate that positive childhood experiences may be protective against cigarette and high-risk alcohol use behaviors in adulthood.
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This self-published report includes additional data and discussion related to the 2019 Montana BRFSS data explored in the publication above. The findings indicate that the positive adult outcomes of PCEs extend beyond lower risks of physical and mental health to include a lower likelihood of cigarette and illicit drug use and lower likelihood of problem drinking behaviors.
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As local, state, national, and international entities adjust policies and programs to align with the rapidly growing body of research on the health and wellbeing outcomes from positive experiences across the lifespan, it is helpful to have straightforward guiding documents. The research around Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) has been thoroughly synthesized, and it is important to do the same with Positive Childhood Experiences (PCEs). Carla Ritz, the Managing Director for The Montana Institute, served as an advisor for this 2025 research brief on PCEs from the Washington State Prevention Research Collaborative and the Washington Health Care Authority.